Ensure equitable access to safe and affordable drinking water, sanitation and hygiene for all

Over the last several decades, the world has seen the emergence of a global continental drying phenomenon in which large landmasses have experienced a long-term decline in both ground and surface water availability. Climate change-driven shifts in precipitation, evaporation and streamflow, as well as water and land management decisions that contribute to growing surface water and groundwater withdrawals, are resulting in global freshwater reserves being replaced by megadrying regions at alarming rates. Critically, while there is building evidence that climate change is making both dry areas drier and wet areas wetter, dry areas are drying faster than wet areas are wetting, compounding water insecurity in already vulnerable settings.

One study found that, in the Northern Hemisphere, areas experiencing drying have been increasing by twice the size of California annually, and since 2002, 75% of the global population has lived in an area that is losing freshwater.

Continental drying has serious implications not only for livelihoods and ecosystems but also for equitable access to WASH services. Declining surface and groundwater availability can reduce the reliability of drinking water sources, increase dependence on lower-quality or more expensive or distant supplies, raise treatment and pumping costs, and heighten the risk of unsafe storage and contamination. It can also negatively impact rural and urban water supply systems, constraining the capacity of utilities and communities to maintain continuous service.

In sanitation, reduced water availability can limit the usability and performance of sewer-connected systems as well as undermine hygiene practices like hand-washing. Increased aridity and reduced freshwater supply also increase competition for freshwater, threatening agricultural productivity and jobs in farming communities, reducing capacities for climate adaptation and increasing the frequency and severity of wildfires.

Recent studies measuring global continental drying rely on satellite data that measures the world’s terrestrial water storage (TWS), or the total amount of water stored on land, both on and below the surface. When this value declines, continental drying is occurring. Although scientific literature has not identified a clear, quantitative global target for TWS levels that would be sufficient to prevent adverse impacts of continental drying, the urgency of halting this trend is clear. Unfortunately, most recent data shows an increasingly negative anomaly in terrestrial water storage as compared to the monthly average between 2002-2020, showing that TWS levels have been declining steadily since around 2012.

By 2030, half of the world’s population is expected to live in water-stressed areas. This situation makes it paramount to address challenges in water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) services, particularly in regions or with groups most vulnerable to increasing water-related hazards, including floods and droughts.

These challenges are compounded by global pressures such as climate change, population growth and rapid urbanization — all of which are projected to have significant impacts on WASH services worldwide. Water utility providers, even better-financed ones, are under increasing pressure to expand coverage, improve service quality and meet local needs, all while maintaining and updating existing water infrastructure.

Understanding whether nationally determined contributions (NDCs) — the climate plans countries submit to the U.N. — incorporate resilience into WASH infrastructure and operations matters because NDCs shape national climate finance, planning and accountability, and climate change directly threatens water systems.

Climate Watch’s NDC Tracker is a tool used to monitor the content and ambitions of a country’s climate actions under the Paris Agreement to help gauge whether the world is on track to meet the agreement’s climate goals. Currently, 16% of countries with NDCs mention resilience-building measures in their WASH infrastructure and operational plans. However, although the great majority of NDCs include adaptation priority areas, vulnerability and risk assessments, and support needs, adaptation goals within these documents could still be considerably more specific, measurable and actionable — an important limitation of this indicator. While National Adaptation Plans (NAPs) contain more detailed information on adaptation planning, only 76 countries have submitted one to date, resulting in a substantially smaller analytical sample compared with the 194 parties that have submitted an NDC. In addition, currently no global tool exists to sift through or track WASH-related dimensions within NAP documents.

All countries are facing a growing funding gap in keeping up with the rehabilitation, operation and maintenance of aging water infrastructures. Chronic underinvestment contributes to infrastructure deterioration, which in turn increases losses and maintenance needs even further. Water network performance metrics help reflect the physical condition and maintenance levels of distribution systems. They include metrics such as nonrevenue water (NRW, water that enters the distribution system but does not generate any revenue for the utility because it is lost in transit or not billed), pipe break rates, pipe leakage rates and service continuity.

Currently, no single global dataset exists to measure countries’ abilities to maintain their aging water infrastructure, so proxy metrics are often used instead. One such metric is nonrevenue water, which can reflect infrastructure that is not well-maintained or is aging. High levels of NRW lead to revenue losses that constrain utilities’ investment in system maintenance and upgrades, ultimately affecting the quality and reliability of water services for water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH). Most utilities fail to fully recover their basic operation and maintenance costs, especially when serving low-income households with low water consumption.

Many large water networks use infrastructure constructed decades ago that is beyond its intended design life and in need of repair and rehabilitation. These deteriorating conditions increase the risks of service disruptions due to damaged and leaky pipes and make it more difficult for water utilities to keep up with current and future demand. Aging distribution systems can also compromise water quality, increasing risks from corrosion, contamination intrusion and, in parts of North America and Europe, lead contamination from legacy lead service lines.

Data covering 152 countries sourced from Intelligent Utilities shows that, despite a small improvement in 2022, the world has made little meaningful progress in curbing water losses across distribution networks. Global NRW was 15 liters per connection per hour in 2021, but by 2024 it had climbed to 26 liters per connection per hour. Higher numbers signal that more water is being lost before it reaches paying customers, resulting in mounting financial losses for utilities, more leaks and pipe bursts, and wasted energy to treat and pump water that never reaches its destination. At a time when water scarcity is intensifying globally, the trend is moving in precisely the wrong direction.

Affordability often determines whether people can access and sustainably use all water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) services without sacrificing other basic needs like health care, food and education. Although global human rights to water and sanitation place obligations on countries to ensure that services are affordable, currently there is no universal definition of or way to measure affordability.

Nevertheless, World Health Organization (WHO) guidelines state that spending more than 3-5% of household income on WASH is unaffordable — a reality for many households living in poverty in low-income countries. Higher costs for these services disproportionally affect lower-income households, can deepen inequalities, and can mean that services go underused even when these are available — for example, when toilets exist but require payment.

Less than one-third of countries have established national monitoring indicators for affordability and equity related to U.N. Sustainable Development Goal Target 6.1 (centered on safe and affordable drinking water), and no countries have indicators for Target 6.2, which focuses on sanitation and hygiene. Some countries have established national affordability thresholds based on percentage of household income spent on WASH; Laos, for example, suggests that monthly water bills for low-income households not exceed 5% of their total monthly household income.

While different global and national proposed thresholds exist for what constitutes “affordability” of WASH services, very little data actually tracks affordability at the household level. Monitoring progress made in ensuring that all households can afford WASH services therefore remains limited.

A 2024 survey by the WHO found that 44 of 98 countries reported having a national target for drinking water affordability, and 34 of 72 have national indicators for affordability, yet few countries monitor progress against these targets or allocate resources to doing so. Recognizing these monitoring gaps, a UNICEF and WHO report recommends strengthening datasets and data analyses of income and expenditure surveys, as well as reaching a consensus on a threshold or range for affordable WASH services.

Engaging stakeholders at multiple levels is crucial to empower those disproportionately affected by poor freshwater quality, enabling them to improve their access to clean water while being valued participants in the process of making decisions and finding solutions. 

Centering communities and local stakeholders in the regular decision-making regarding water and its management can ensure more equitable and sustainable outcomes. Establishing clear procedures in policy for the engagement of local communities is vital to address the diverse needs of communities, particularly the needs of those most vulnerable. In addition, leadership and effective engagement by local communities in water and sanitation management fosters ownership that enhances the effectiveness of such schemes.

A low share of countries with high levels of participation by users or communities in water and sanitation management implies limited participation of local communities in water and sanitation management. Conversely, a high value would indicate extensive engagement, reflecting stronger ownership and a greater probability of achieving sustainable delivery and management of water and sanitation services.

Between 2017 and 2021, the most recent years for which data is available, the proportion of countries with high levels of user and community participation in water and sanitation management has increased from roughly 3% and 2%, respectively, to 14% and 12%. The most notable rise has been in hygiene promotion, which grew from 3.3% of countries in 2017 to 20% in 2021. That same year, 17% of countries reported high community involvement in water resources planning and management, up from 3% in 2017.

While these positive trends are encouraging, it also underscores that fewer than one in five countries have high levels of participation by users and communities, a gap that must be addressed to ensure equitable and sustainable water and sanitation management.

Complex freshwater governance where government agencies, Indigenous governments, community groups, nongovernmental organizations and private actors share overlapping authority can lead to coordination challenges when handling shared problems such as those presented by water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH). The transboundary nature of many freshwater ecosystems may further complicate access to safe water when transboundary cooperation plans are not in place.

Integrated water resources management (IWRM) in the WASH context promotes the cross-body coordinated planning and management of water, land and related resources to ensure that all communities have reliable access to safe WASH services while maintaining ecosystem health. Effective IWRM promotes water security by conserving water-dependent ecosystems and maintaining water quality while also reducing pollution and safeguarding drinking water by minimizing contamination from agriculture, industry and urban runoff. It also integrates climate change considerations into water management strategies, helping to adapt to changing precipitation patterns, extreme weather events and rising temperatures — all factors that can affect the continuity of WASH services.

IWRM implementation has resulted in significant and diverse benefits in multiple countries and regions, many of which directly support WASH outcomes. For example, in Denmark it has led to improved groundwater quality and enhanced protection of drinking water sources. India has seen improvements in rural livelihoods and downstream water quality preservation. Bangladesh experienced poverty reduction alongside the restoration of vital wetland ecosystems, which promotes cleaner water and improved flood regulation. And Minzir, in northern Ethiopia, revived local water supplies in a previously barren landscape.

Globally, the share of countries with high or very high levels of implementation of national-level IWRM policies and plans grew from 19% in 2017 to 26% in 2023. While this is trending upward, as of 2023, 136 countries still had not made sufficient progress with IWRM implementation, despite the global call for IWRM since 1992. The limited implementation of such policies hinders sustainable water management, reducing the reliability and safety of WASH services while increasing the potential for conflicts, resource inefficiencies and service interruptions.